Facial Synkinesia, Spasms and Dystonia

Furkan ASANa, Bengi Gül TÜRKb, Meral KIZILTANb
aIğdır State Hospital, Department of Neurology, Iğdır, Türkiye
bİstanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Neurology, İstanbul, Türkiye

Asan F, Türk BG, Kızıltan M. Facial synkinesia, spasms and dystonia. In: Sanus GZ, Batıoğlu Karaaltın A, eds. Surgical Management of Facial Nerve Paralysis. 1st ed. Ankara: Türkiye Klinikleri; 2022. p.86-102.

Article Language: EN

ABSTRACT
The face is a part of the body where many diseases with positive motor symptoms can be seen. Their etiologies can be as different as their clinical manifestations. The following sections contain the most common diseases in which involuntary facial movements are the main symptoms. ‘Post-facial Synkinesia Syndrome’, which is a clinical picture shaped by synkinetic co-activation of the muscles in the symptomatic half of the face and involuntary contractions of the muscles innervated by the facial nerve after a previous peripheral facial palsy; ‘Hemifacial Spasm’ shaped by involuntary, irregular, paroxysmal contraction of facial nerve innervated muscles in one half of the face and dystonias observed on the face are discussed.

Keywords: Hemifacial spasm; synkinesis; dystonia

Referanslar

  1. Bylund N, Jensson D, enghag S, Berg T, Marsk e, Hultcrantz M, et al. Synkinesis in Bell's palsy in a randomised controlled trial. Clin otolaryngol.2017;42(3):673-80. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  2. valls-Solé J, Montero J. Movement disorders in patients with peripheral facial palsy. Mov Disord. 2003;18(12):1424-35. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  3. valls-Sole J, Castillo CD, Casanova-Molla J, Costa J. Clinical consequencesof reinnervation disorders after focal peripheral nerve lesions. Clin Neurophysiol. 2011;122(2):219-28. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  4. Chuke JC, Baker RS, Porter JD. Bell's Palsy-associated blepharospasm relieved by aiding eyelid closure. Ann Neurol. 1996;39(2):263-8. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  5. evinger C. extraocular motor nuclei: location, morphology and afferents.Rev oculomot Res. 1988;2:81-117.
  6. Schicatano eJ, Basso MA, evinger C. Animal model explains the origins ofthe cranial dystonia benign essential blepharospasm. J Neurophysiol.1997;77(5):2842-6. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  7. Steward JD. Structure of the peripheral nerves. Focal Peripheral Nerves.4th ed. west vancouver, Can.: JBJ Publishing; 2010. p.1-14.
  8. Thomander L. Reorganization of the facial motor nucleus after peripheralnerve generation. Acta otolaryngol. 1984;97:619-26. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  9. Gordon T. Peripheral nerve regeneration and muscle reinnervation. IntJ Mol Sci. 2020;21(22):8652. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  10. Qu wR, Zhu Z, Liu J, Song DB, Tian H, Chen BP, et al. Interaction between Schwann cells and other cells during repair of peripheral nerveinjury. Neural Regen Res. 2021;16(1):93-8. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  11. Girouard MP, Bueno M, Julian v, Drake S, Byrne AB, Fournier Ae. Themolecular interplay between axon degeneration and regeneration. DevNeurobiol. 2018;78(10):978-90. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  12. Shi S, Xu L, Li J, Han y, wang H. Different discharge properties of facialnucleus motoneurons following neurotmesis in a rat model. NeurosciLett. 2016;629:180-5. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  13. Nakao y, Matsumoto K, Kumagami H. Altered distribution of motor neurons in experimental facial nerve paralysis. Acta otolaryngol.1992;112(6):998-1003. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  14. Asahara T, Lin M, Kumazawa y, Takeo K, Akamine T, Nishimura y, et al.Long-term observation on the changes of somatotopy in the facial nucleusafter nerve suture in the cat: morphological studies using retrograde labeling. Brain Res Bull. 1999;49(3):195-202. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  15. Kimura J, Rodnitzky RL, okawara SH. electrophysiologic analysis ofaberrant regeneration after facial nerve paralysis. Neurology.1975;25(10):989-93. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  16. Digre K, Corbett JJ. Hemifacial spasm: differential diagnosis, mechanism, and treatment. Adv Neurol. 1988;49:151-76.
  17. Chaudhry N, Srivastava A, Joshi L. Hemifacial spasm: the past, presentand future. J Neurol Sci. 2015;356(1-2):27-31. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  18. Kobata H, Kondo A, Iwasaki K, Nishioka T. Combined hyperactive dysfunction syndrome of the cranial nerves: trigeminal neuralgia, hemifacialspasm, and glossopharyngeal neuralgia: 11-year experience and review.Neurosurgery. 1998;43(6):1351-61; discussion 1361-2. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  19. Rudzińska M, wójcik-Pędziwiatr M, Malec-Litwinowicz M, Grabska N,Hartel M, Flak M, et al. Is hypertension a risk factor of hemifacial spasm?Neurol Neurochir Pol. 2016;50(2):69-74. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  20. Møller AR, Jannetta PJ. Hemifacial spasm: results of electrophysiologicrecording during microvascular decompression operations. Neurology.1985;35(7):969-74. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  21. Nielsen vK. Pathophysiology of hemifacial spasm: I. ephaptic transmission and ectopic excitation. Neurology. 1984;34(4):418-26. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  22. Nielsen vK. Pathophysiology of hemifacial spasm: II. Lateral spread ofthe supraorbital nerve reflex. Neurology. 1984;34(4):427-31. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  23. eshed-eisenbach y, Peles e. The clustering of voltage-gated sodiumchannels in various excitable membranes. Dev Neurobiol.2021;81(5):427-37. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  24. Zhou QM, Zhong J, Jiao w, Zhu J, yang XS, ying TT, et al. The role ofautonomic nervous system in the pathophysiology of hemifacial spasm.Neurol Res. 2012;34(7):643-8. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  25. Xia L, Dou NN, Zhong J, Zhu J, wang yN, Liu MX, et al. Upregulation ofNav1.8 in demyelinated facial nerves might be relevant to the generationof hemifacial spasm. J Craniofac Surg. 2014;25(4):1334-6. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  26. Dou NN, Zhong J, Zhou QM, Zhu J, wang yN, Xia L, et al. The mechanism of hemifacial spasm: a new understanding of the offending artery.Neurol Res. 2015;37(2):184-8. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  27. Kızıltan Me, Şahin R, Akalın MA, Uzun N, Savrun FK. Discharge pattern of the spasm activity in hemifacial spasm: a summary of 206 patients. Nobel Med. 2010;6(2):9-14.
  28. Auger RG. Hemifacial spasm: clinical and electrophysiologic observations. Neurology. 1979;29(9 Pt 1):1261-72. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  29. Nielsen vK. electrophysiology of the facial nerve in hemifacial spasm:ectopic/ephaptic excitation. Muscle Nerve. 1985;8(7):545-55. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  30. valls-Sole' J. Facial nerve palsy and hemifacial spasm. In: Said G,Krarup C, eds. Handbook of Clinical Neurology: Peripheral Nerve Disorders. vol.115. (3rd series). 1st ed. edinburgh: elsevier; 2013. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  31. Ishikawa M, ohira T, Namiki J, Gotoh K, Takase M, Toya S. electrophysiological investigation of hemifacial spasm: F-waves of the facialmuscles. Acta Neurochir (wien). 1996;138(1):24-32. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  32. valls-Solé J. electrodiagnostic studies of the facial nerve in peripheral facial palsy and hemifacial spasm. Muscle Nerve. 2007;36(1):14-20. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  33. Kimura J. Blink reflex in facial dyskinesia. Adv Neurol. 1988;49:39-63.
  34. erdemir-Kiziltan M, Uzun N, Kiziltan G, Karaali-Savrun F. Somatosensoryevoked blink response in hemifacial spasm and peripheral facial palsy.electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol. 2005;45(4):203-7.
  35. Kiziltan Me, Gündüz A, Sahin R. Auditory evoked blink reflex and posterior auricular muscle response: observations in patients with HFS andPFS. J electromyogr Kinesiol. 2010;20(3):508-12. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  36. valls-Sole J, Tolosa eS. Blink reflex excitability cycle in hemifacial spasm.Neurology. 1989;39(8):1061-6. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  37. Haller S, etienne L, Kövari e, varoquaux AD, Urbach H, Becker M. Imaging of neurovascular compression syndromes: trigeminal neuralgia,hemifacial spasm, vestibular paroxysmia, and glossopharyngeal neuralgia. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2016;37(8):1384-92. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  38. Rosenstengel C, Matthes M, Baldauf J, Fleck S, Schroeder H. Hemifacial spasm: conservative and surgical treatment options. Dtsch ArzteblInt. 2012;109(41):667-73. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  39. Geller BD, Hallett M, Ravits J. Botulinum toxin therapy in hemifacialspasm: clinical and electrophysiologic studies. Muscle Nerve.1989;12(9):716-22. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  40. Boluk C, Gökçe y, Gündüz A, Uzun Adatepe N, Karaali Savrun F, Kaytaz A, et al. Botulinum toxin injections for neurological disorders: experience between 1994 and 2019. Neurological Sciences andNeurophysiology. 2020;37(4):197-202. [Crossref]
  41. yılmaz ATC, yılmaz M, Öztekin MF. Comparison of preseptal and pretarsalonabotulinum toxin an injection in patients with hemifacial spasm. Int JNeurosci. 2021;131(6):549-54. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  42. Kiziltan M, Sahin R, Uzun N, Kiziltan G. Hemifacial spasm and posteriorauricular muscle. electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol. 2006;46(5):317-20.
  43. Jannetta PJ, Abbasy M, Maroon JC, Ramos FM, Albin MS. etiology anddefinitive microsurgical treatment of hemifacial spasm. operative techniques and results in 47 patients. J Neurosurg. 1977;47(3):321-8. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  44. Albanese A, Bhatia K, Bressman SB, Delong MR, Fahn S, Fung vS, etal. Phenomenology and classification of dystonia: a consensus update.Mov Disord. 2013;28(7):863-73. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  45. Defazio G. The epidemiology of primary dystonia: current evidence andperspectives. eur J Neurol. 2010;17 Suppl 1:9-14. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  46. valls-Sole J, Defazio G. Blepharospasm: update on epidemiology, clinical aspects, and pathophysiology. Front Neurol. 2016;7:45. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  47. Abbruzzese G, Berardelli A, Girlanda P, Marchese R, Martino D, Morgante F, et al. Long-term assessment of the risk of spread in primarylate-onset focal dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry.2008;79(4):392-6. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  48. Steeves TD, Day L, Dykeman J, Jette N, Pringsheim T. The prevalenceof primary dystonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mov Disord. 2012;27(14):1789-96. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  49. Defazio G, Conte A, Gigante AF, Ferrazzano G, Pellicciari R, DagostinoS, et al. Clinical heterogeneity in patients with idiopathic blepharospasm:A cluster analysis. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2017;40:64-8. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  50. Bentivoglio AR, Daniele A, Albanese A, Tonali PA, Fasano A. Analysis ofblink rate in patients with blepharospasm. Mov Disord. 2006;21(8):1225-9. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  51. Conte A, Defazio G, Ferrazzano G, Hallett M, Macerollo A, Fabbrini G,et al. Is increased blinking a form of blepharospasm? Neurology.2013;80(24):2236-41. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  52. Martino D, Liuzzi D, Macerollo A, Aniello MS, Livrea P, Defazio G. Thephenomenology of the geste antagoniste in primary blepharospasm andcervical dystonia. Mov Disord. 2010;25(4):407-12. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  53. Ferrazzano G, Berardelli I, Conte A, Baione v, Concolato C, Belvisi D,et al. Motor and non‑motor symptoms in blepharospasm: clinical andpathophysiological implications. Journal of Neurology. 2019;266(2):2780-5. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  54. Khooshnoodi MA, Factor SA, Jinnah HA. Secondary blepharospasm associated with structural lesions of the brain. J Neurol Sci. 2013;331(1-2):98-101. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  55. Marsden CD, obeso JA, Zarranz JJ, Lang Ae. The anatomical basis ofsymptomatic hemidystonia. Brain. 1985;108 (Pt 2):463-83. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  56. Prudente CN, Hess eJ, Jinnah HA. Dystonia as a network disorder: whatis the role of the cerebellum? Neuroscience. 2014;260:23-35. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  57. Huang XF, Shan P, Liang ZH, Ni MF, Miao yw, Xu GQ, et al. Multipleneural networks malfunction in primary blepharospasm: an independentcomponents analysis. Front Hum Neurosci. 2017;11:235. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  58. Battistella G, Termsarasab P, Ramdhani RA, Fuertinger S, Simonyan K.Isolated focal dystonia as a disorder of large-scale functional networks.Cereb Cortex. 2017;27(2):1203-15. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  59. Glickman A, Nguyen P, Shelton e, Peterson DA, Berman BD. Basal gangliaand cerebellar circuits have distinct roles in blepharospasm. ParkinsonismRelat Disord. 2020;78:158-64. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  60. Antelmi e, erro R, Rocchi L, Liguori R, Tinazzi M, Di Stasio F, et al. Neurophysiological correlates of abnormal somatosensory temporal discrimination in dystonia. Mov Disord. 2017;32(1):141-8. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  61. Quartarone A, Ruge D. How many types of dystonia? Pathophysiologicalconsiderations. Front Neurol. 2018;9:12. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  62. Conte A, Defazio G, Mascia M, Belvisi D, Pantano P, Berardelli A. Advances in the pathophysiology of adult-onset focal dystonias: recent neurophysiological and neuroimaging evidence. F1000Res. 2020;9:F1000Faculty Rev-67. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  63. Defazio G, Hallett M, Jinnah HA, Berardelli A. Development and validation of a clinical guideline for diagnosing blepharospasm. Neurology.2013;81(3):236-40. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  64. Defazio G, Hallett M, Jinnah HA, Stebbins GT, Gigante AF, FerrazzanoG, et al. Development and validation of a clinical scale for rating theseverity of blepharospasm. Mov Disord. 2015;30(4):525-30. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  65. Berardelli A, Rothwell JC, Day BL, Marsden CD. Pathophysiology of blepharospasm and oromandibular dystonia. Brain. 1985;108 (Pt 3):593-608. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  66. Pauletti G, Berardelli A, Cruccu G, Agostino R, Manfredi M. Blink reflexand the masseter inhibitory reflex in patients with dystonia. Mov Disord.1993;8(4):495-500. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  67. Schwingenschuh P, Katschnig P, edwards MJ, Teo JT, Korlipara Lv,Rothwell JC, et al. The blink reflex recovery cycle differs between essential and presumed psychogenic blepharospasm. Neurology.2011;76(7):610-4. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  68. Gómez-wong e, Martí MJ, Tolosa e, valls-Solé J. Sensory modulationof the blink reflex in patients with blepharospasm. Arch Neurol.1998;55(9):1233-7. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  69. Teo JT, van de warrenburg BP, Schneider SA, Rothwell JC, Bhatia KP.Neurophysiological evidence for cerebellar dysfunction in primary focaldystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2009;80(1):80-3. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  70. Fabbrini G, Conte A, Ferrazzano G, esposito M, Albanese A, PellicciariR, et al; Italian Dystonia Registry participants. Neuroimaging in idiopathicadult-onset focal dystonia. Neurol Sci. 2021;42(7):2947-50. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  71. Fung vS, Jinnah HA, Bhatia K, vidailhet M. Assessment of patients withisolated or combined dystonia: an update on dystonia syndromes. MovDisord. 2013;28(7):889-98. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  72. Solmi M, Pigato G, Kane JM, Correll CU. Treatment of tardive dyskinesia with vMAT-2 inhibitors: a systematic review and meta-analysis ofrandomized controlled trials. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2018;12:1215-38. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  73. Miyazaki y, Sako w, Asanuma K, Izumi y, Miki T, Kaji R. efficacy of zolpidem for dystonia: a study among different subtypes. Front Neurol.2012;3:58. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  74. vijayakumar D, wijemanne S, Jankovic J. Treatment of blepharospasmwith apraclonidine. J Neurol Sci. 2017;372:57-9. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  75. Jankovic J. Botulinum toxin: state of the art. Mov Disord.2017;32(8):1131-8. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  76. Pariseau B, worley Mw, Anderson RL. Myectomy for blepharospasm2013. Curr opin ophthalmol. 2013;24(5):488-93. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  77. wang X, Zhang Z, Mao Z, yu X. Deep brain stimulation for Meige syndrome: a meta-analysis with individual patient data. J Neurol.2019;266(11):2646-56. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  78. volkmann J, wolters A, Kupsch A, Müller J, Kühn AA, Schneider GH, etal; DBS study group for dystonia. Pallidal deep brain stimulation in patients with primary generalised or segmental dystonia: 5-year follow-upof a randomised trial. Lancet Neurol. 2012;11(12):1029-38. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  79. Marsden CD. Blepharospasm-oromandibular dystonia syndrome(Brueghel's syndrome). A variant of adult-onset torsion dystonia? J NeurolNeurosurg Psychiatry. 1976;39(12):1204-9. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  80. Britton D, Alty Je, Mannion CJ. oromandibular dystonia: a diagnosis notto miss. Br J oral Maxillofac Surg. 2020;58(5):520-4. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  81. Bana C, Nascimbene C, vanotti A, Zardoni M, Mariani C, osio M. A caseof masticatory dystonia following cerebellar haemorrhage. Cerebellum.2015;14(6):723-7. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  82. Alcalay R, wu S, Patel S, Frucht S. oromandibular dystonia as a complication of cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis. Mov Disord. 2009;24(9):1397-9. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  83. Gunduz A, Karaali-Savrun F, Uluduz D. Hemimasticatory spasm following pontine infarction. Mov Disord. 2007;22(11):1674-5. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  84. Auger RG, Litchy wJ, Cascino TL, Ahlskog Je. Hemimasticatory spasm:clinical and electrophysiologic observations. Neurology. 1992;42(12):2263-6. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  85. Cruccu G, Inghilleri M, Berardelli A, Pauletti G, Casali C, Coratti P, et al.Pathophysiology of hemimasticatory spasm. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1994;57(1):43-50. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  86. Thompson PD, obeso JA, Delgado G, Gallego J, Marsden CD. Focaldystonia of the jaw and the differential diagnosis of unilateral jaw andmasticatory spasm. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1986;49(6):651-6. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  87. Christie C, Rodríguez-Quiroga SA, Arakaki T, Rey RD, Garretto NS. Hemimasticatory spasm: report of a case and review of the literature†. Tremorother Hyperkinet Mov (N y). 2014;4:210. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  88. Barbey A, Aybek S. Functional movement disorders. Curr opin Neurol.2017;30(4):427-34. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  89. Fasano A, valadas A, Bhatia KP, Prashanth LK, Lang Ae, Munhoz RP, et al.Psychogenic facial movement disorders: clinical features and associatedconditions. Mov Disord. 2012;27(12):1544-51. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  90. Fasano A, Tinazzi M. Functional facial and tongue movement disorders.Handb Clin Neurol. 2016;139:353-65. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  91. voon v, Brezing C, Gallea C, Hallett M. Aberrant supplementary motorcomplex and limbic activity during motor preparation in motor conversion disorder. Mov Disord. 2011;26(13):2396-403. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  92. Hallett M. Functional (psychogenic) movement disorders - Clinical presentations. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2016;22 Suppl 1(0 1):S149-52. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]
  93. Morgante F, Tinazzi M, Squintani G, Martino D, Defazio G, Romito L, etal. Abnormal tactile temporal discrimination in psychogenic dystonia.Neurology. 2011;77(12):1191-7. [Crossref]  [PubMed]
  94. Ricciardi L, edwards MJ. Treatment of functional (psychogenic) movement disorders. Neurotherapeutics. 2014;11(1):201-7. [Crossref]  [PubMed]  [PMC]